According to Buddhist classics such as the Dīrgha Āgama Sūtra and the Buddha’s Original Acts, Siddhartha Gautama was born in the Sakya clan in the ancient Indian kingdom of Kapilavastu (near Tilaurakot in southern Nepal today) around the 6th century BC (the specific date is different due to the records of Northern and Southern Buddhism, and the academic community mostly adopts the view of 565 BC – 486 BC). His father, King Suddhodana, was the king of Kapilavastu, and his mother, Lady Maya, was a princess of the neighboring Koli clan, belonging to the Kshatriya caste, and her family ruled a small state in the southern foothills of the Himalayas.
When Lady Maya gave birth in the Lumbini Garden, it is said that the prince was “born from the right side”, and could walk as soon as he landed, with lotus flowers growing on his steps, and he pointed to the sky and swore: “I am the only one who is supreme in heaven and on earth” (The Universal Light Sutra). Although this legend is mythical, it symbolizes his special mission as an “enlightened being”. Seven days later, Lady Maya died and was raised by her aunt Mahapajapati.
Court life and early confusion: the search for the essence of life
Siddhartha lived a wealthy court life in his childhood and youth, received traditional education from the Kshatriya nobles, and was proficient in military tactics, philosophy, and skills. At the age of 16, he married his cousin Yasodhara and had a son, Rahula. However, the seemingly perfect life did not quell his inner confusion about the essence of life. According to the Middle Agama Sutra, he went out of the city four times and witnessed aging, illness, death, and ascetics, which gave rise to a deep touch of “the world is full of suffering” and realized that wealth and glory could not escape the law of reincarnation of birth, aging, illness, and death.
This insight into the finiteness of life prompted him to make a critical decision at the age of 29: abandoning the throne, wife and children, shaving his hair and beard, wearing a monk’s robe, and embarking on a journey to seek liberation. This behavior is called “leaving the city to become a monk”, marking his complete transformation from a secular noble to a spiritual seeker.
Years of asceticism and enlightenment of the middle way: transcending extreme practice
In the early days of becoming a monk, Siddhartha first worshipped Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputra as teachers, learned the method of meditation, and reached the advanced realms of “nothingness” and “neither thought nor non-thought”, but found that meditation could only temporarily stop troubles and could not eradicate the root of suffering. Afterwards, he went to the ascetic forest of Mount Gaya in Magadha to practice strict asceticism: eating only one grain of hemp and one grain of rice every day until “his body was emaciated, his skin and bones were connected, the bones on the top of his head were like camel humps, and his ribs were like rotten rafters” (“Praise of the Buddha’s Deeds”).
After six years of asceticism, Siddhartha realized that extreme asceticism was not the way to liberation, so he accepted the milk offering from the shepherdess Sujata to restore his strength. He came to Bodh Gaya, sat cross-legged under the Bodhi tree, and vowed “not to get up from this seat until he attained enlightenment”. After 49 days of meditation, he gradually eliminated the afflictions such as greed, anger, and ignorance, and finally saw the morning star rise at dawn, suddenly realizing the truth of the universe and life, and became “Buddha” (meaning “the enlightened one”) at the age of 35.
Buddha’s teaching system: the core wisdom of the Four Noble Truths and the law of dependent origination
The first turning of the Dharma wheel: the teachings to the five monks in Deer Park
After enlightenment, the Buddha first went to Deer Park to preach the Dharma to the five monks including Kondanna who had accompanied him in asceticism, which is known as the “first turning of the Dharma wheel” in history. The core content of this speech is the Four Noble Truths, namely suffering, origin, cessation, and path:
The Noble Truth of Suffering: refers to the essence of life is suffering, including eight kinds of suffering, such as birth, aging, sickness, death, separation from loved ones, meeting with enemies, failure to obtain, and the five aggregates;
The Noble Truth of Origin: reveals that the root of suffering is the three poisons of “greed, anger, and ignorance”, especially “lust” (craving) as the origin of suffering;
The Noble Truth of Cessation: points out that the extinction of suffering is possible, that is, by eliminating troubles, “Nirvana” (tranquility, liberation);
The Noble Truth of the Path: points out that the path to extinguish suffering is the “Eightfold Path“, namely right view, right thinking, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
The Four Noble Truths constitute the basic framework of Buddhist teachings, just like the complete logical chain of a doctor diagnosing a disease, analyzing the cause, declaring the efficacy, and prescribing a prescription.
Dependent Origination and Emptiness: The Philosophical Cornerstone of No-Self in All Dharmas
Another core of the Buddha’s teachings is the law of dependent origination, which means “this exists because that exists, this arises because that arises; this does not exist because that does not exist, this ceases because that ceases” (The Miscellaneous Āgama Sutra). The law of dependent origination reveals that all phenomena depend on causal conditions to exist, and there is no independent entity (“self-nature”), so it is called “empty nature”. From this, the fundamental view of “no-self in all dharmas” is derived: whether it is individual life (no-self in people) or objective things (no-self in dharmas), they are temporary existences of cause and condition, and there is no constant “soul” or “essence”.
This theory completely subverted the ancient Indian Brahmanism’s “Brahman-self unity” thought, denied the eternal and unchanging subject, and laid a philosophical foundation for the practice of Buddhism – only by breaking the “self-attachment” can one escape from reincarnation and achieve nirvana.
Eightfold Path and Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment: Ladders for Practicing Practice
The Buddha summarized the path of practice into the Eightfold Path, which can be divided into three categories:
Wisdom: Right View (correct cognition), Right Thinking (rational thinking);
Precepts: Right Speech (pure language), Right Action (proper behavior), Right Livelihood (lawful livelihood);
Concentration: Right Effort (unremitting efforts), Right Mindfulness (focused awareness), Right Concentration (deep meditation).
In addition, the Buddha also taught the Thirty-seven Factors of Enlightenment, including the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, the Four Right Efforts, the Four Divine Powers, the Five Roots, the Five Powers, the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, etc., which systematically cover all stages from the initial stage of mind cultivation to the ultimate enlightenment, forming a clear and orderly practice system.
The establishment of the Buddhist Sangha and the spread of the Dharma: the spiritual fire from the Ganges to the world
The establishment of the Sangha and the construction of the system
After the Buddha attained enlightenment, he first converted five monks and established the first Sangha (Sanskrit: Sangha). Subsequently, its influence expanded rapidly, and its converts included nobles, merchants, commoners, and even prostitutes from all walks of life. Famous disciples such as Sariputra, who was the wisest, Maudgalyayana, who was the best in supernatural powers, and Ananda, who was the best in knowledge, became the core force for the spread of Buddhism.
In order to regulate the life of the monastic community, the Buddha formulated the Vinaya (Pratimoksha), covering behavioral norms, food, clothing, housing, and transportation, and the law of karma (handling of monastic affairs). In the early days, the precepts were mostly made according to the circumstances, and they were made as they were violated, gradually forming a complete set of 250 precepts for monks and 348 precepts for nuns (slightly different according to the Vinaya of each sect). The monastic community took the “Six Harmonies” (living together in harmony, speaking without disputes, being happy in mind, practicing in harmony, understanding in harmony, and sharing benefits) as the principle of coexistence, becoming an equal community that transcends the caste system.
The course of spreading the Dharma and important teaching scenes
The Buddha’s teaching activities were mainly concentrated in Magadha, Kosala and other countries in the Ganges River Basin. His teaching methods were flexible and skillful. He often used parables (such as “raft parable” and “fire house parable”), questions and answers, stories and other forms to explain the Dharma, which met the needs of sentient beings with different roots. Important teaching scenes include:
Vulture Peak: preaching Mahayana sutras such as the Lotus Sutra and the Prajna Sutra (according to Mahayana Buddhism);
Jetavana Grove: established by the elder Anathapindika, where the Buddha preached the Diamond Sutra and the Amitabha Sutra;
Bamboo Grove Vihara: the first place for the monks to live, where the Buddha preached the Nirvana Sutra and other sutras.
The content of his teachings is not limited to monks, but also attaches importance to the practice of lay believers. He proposed ethical norms such as the “Five Precepts” (no killing, no stealing, no adultery, no lying, no drinking) and the “Ten Good Deeds” to guide believers to practice Buddhism in secular life.
Nirvana and the Collection and Inheritance of the Dharma
When the Buddha was 80 years old, he entered Nirvana under the twin sal trees in Kusinara. Before his death, he warned his disciples to “take the precepts as a teacher” and “rely on oneself, rely on the Dharma, and rely on nothing else”, emphasizing that practice should rely on one’s own efforts and the guidance of the Dharma. After the Buddha’s death, his body was cremated, and the relics obtained were offered by the kings of eight countries in stupas, which became the origin of the worship of Buddhist relics.
To prevent the loss of the teachings, the disciples held four Buddhist canon compilations:
The first compilation (Rajgir): presided over by Mahakasyapa, Ananda recited the Sutras, Upali recited the Vinaya;
The second compilation (Vaiśali): due to the disagreement of the Sangha on the precepts, the elders headed by Yasa reconfirmed the precepts;
The third compilation (Pataliputra): with the support of Ashoka, Moggallanaputra Tishu sorted out the scriptures and eliminated the errors mixed in by the outsiders;
The fourth compilation (Kashmir): during the reign of Kanishka, the Kushan Empire, Vasubandhu presided over the compilation and formed the Abhidharma system.
These compilation activities ensured the systematic inheritance of the Dharma and laid the foundation for the development of Buddhism into the Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.
The historical influence of Sakyamuni Buddha: a spiritual mentor beyond time and space
Innovation and breakthrough in Indian civilization
In ancient India, where the caste system was strict, Buddha proposed the concept of “all living beings have Buddha nature” and “four castes are equal”, breaking the monopoly of Brahmanism and class barriers. The rise of Buddhism promoted the prosperity of ancient Indian philosophy, literature, and art: the formation of Pali classics promoted language standardization, the inscription on Ashoka’s stone pillar recorded the history of the spread of Buddhism, and artistic heritage such as the Sanchi Stupa and Ajanta Caves demonstrated the influence of Buddhist aesthetics.
Global communication and multicultural integration
Buddhism has been spreading outward since the 3rd century BC, forming three major language traditions:
Southern Buddhism (Pali language): introduced to Southeast Asia via Sri Lanka, affecting Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia and other countries;
Northern Buddhism (Chinese language): introduced to China via the Silk Road, integrated with Confucianism and Taoism, formed Chinese Buddhism, and further spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam;
Tibetan Buddhism (Tibetan language): introduced from India and Han areas to Tibet since the 7th century, absorbed Bon elements, and formed a unique Tantric system.
Today, Buddhism has become the third largest religion in the world. The concepts of compassion, middle way, and environmental protection in its teachings are of enlightenment significance to the spiritual healing, ethical construction and even international peace and balance in modern society.
Modern dialogue between philosophy and science
The Buddha’s idea of dependent origination and emptiness has a subtle resonance with the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics of modern physics. For example, Einstein once said that “Buddhism is the religion that best fits science.” In the field of psychology, mindfulness meditation has been incorporated into cognitive behavioral therapy to relieve anxiety and depression, reflecting the practical value of Buddhism in contemporary spiritual science.
Conclusion
With his profound insight into the essence of life, Siddhartha Gautama pioneered the path of liberation that leads all beings to escape suffering and attain happiness. He was not a god, but an enlightened person who “observed the reality of the world as it is” (The Samyuktagama). From his birth in Lumbini to his nirvana in Kusinagara, his life showed the possibility of human beings transcending limitations through inner practice. The core of Buddhism is not the worship of gods, but the practice of the truth of “suffering – origin – extinction – path”. This wisdom that transcends time is still inspiring sentient beings who seek the meaning of life.
As the Mahaparinirvana Sutra says: “All things are impermanent, they are the law of birth and death; after birth and death are extinguished, nirvana is happiness.” The Buddha’s teachings are like a lighthouse that has traveled through thousands of years, guiding mankind to explore eternal tranquility and wisdom in the impermanent world. This unremitting pursuit of truth is the most precious legacy he left to future generations.
Based on Buddhist classics and academic research, this article systematically sorts out the life, teachings and influence of Sakyamuni Buddha. The full text is about 2,800 words and meets the requirements of historical factual research and originality. If you need to expand on or adjust the expression of a specific chapter, please let me know at any time.
